Annenkov Island (South Georgia)

South Georgia
and the South Sandwich Islands

(Flag ) (Coat of Arms)
Motto: Leo Terram Propriam Protegat (Latin: The Lion shall protect his own land)
Official language	English
Capital	Grytviken
Commissioner	Howard Pearce
Area  - Total  - % water	not ranked 3,093 km² -
Population  - Total (2006 E)  - Density	not ranked ~20 n/a;
Currency	GBP
Time zone	UTC -2
National anthem	God Save the Queen
Internet TLD	.gs

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The territory was formed in 1985; previously they were governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. The territory consists of the island of South Georgia, which is the largest island in the territory, and a group of smaller islands known as the South Sandwich Islands. There is no native population on any of the islands, and the only inhabitants are the British Government Officer, scientists and support staff from the British Antarctic Survey who maintain a base at the capital, King Edward Point, and museum staff at nearby Grytviken.

The British sovereignty of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands has been disputed by Argentina since 1927 and 1938 respectively. The Argentine claim of SGSSI contributed to the 1982 Falklands War and has remained unresolved until today. Argentina maintained a naval station on the South Sandwich Islands from 1976 until 1982, and briefly occupied South Georgia during the Falklands War.

History

Main article: History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

The church at Grytviken.

South Georgia

The Island of South Georgia was first said to have been sighted in 1675 by Anthony de la Roche, a London merchant, and was named Roche Island on some early maps. It was rediscovered in 1775 by Captain James Cook, who after dismissing his find as "not worth the discovery," went on to survey and map the island, make the first landing, claim the territory for Britain, and name it "the Isle of Georgia" in honour of King George III.

Throughout the 19th century it was a sealers' base and, in the following century, a whalers' base until whaling ended mid-century. The first land-based whaling station, Grytviken, was set up in 1904 and was in operation until 1965. The seven whaling stations, all on the North coast with its sheltered harbours, starting in the West are:

• Prince Olav Harbour (from 1911 factory-ship, land-based station 1916 to 1934)
• Leith Harbour (1909 to 1965)
• Stromness (from 1907 factory-ship, land-based station 1912-1931, repair yard to 1960/1961)
• Husvik (from 1907 factory-ship, land-based station 1960 to 1960, out of operation 1930 to 1945)
• Grytviken (1904 to 1965)
• Godthul (1908 to 1929, only a rudimentary land base, main operations on factory-ship)
• Ocean Harbour (1909 to 1920)

During WW2, a small garrison force of Norwegian soldiers were stationed at South Georgia to protect against a possible invasion by Japanese forces. But due to the remote location of the island, the cold was a worse enemy than the Japanese.^[274]

The Falklands War was precipitated on 19 March 1982 when a group of Argentineans, posing as scrap metal merchants, occupied the abandoned whaling station at Leith Harbour on South Georgia. On April 3 the Argentine troops attacked and occupied Grytviken. Among the commanding officers of the Argentinian Garrison was Alfredo Astiz, a Captain in the Argentine Navy who, years later, was convicted of felonies committed during the Dirty War in Argentina. The island was recaptured by British forces on 25 April (Operation Paraquat).

The research station at King Edward Point, near the former Norwegian whaling station of Grytviken, was originally established as an administrative centre and residence of the British Magistrate in 1909, then expanded as a research facility in 1949/1950 by the British Antarctic Survey (until 1962 called Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey), became a small military garrison after the Falklands war. This returned to civilian use in 2001 and is operated by the British Antarctic Survey.

South Sandwich Islands

The islands were initially named "South" Sandwich Islands to distinguish them from the then "Sandwich Islands" now known as "Hawaii". The southern eight islands were discovered by James Cook in 1775. The northern three by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen in 1819. They were named after the 4th Earl of Sandwich, 1st Lord of the Admiralty.

The United Kingdom claimed South Georgia in 1775 and formally annexed both South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in 1908, grouping them with other British held territory in Antarctica as the Falkland Islands Dependencies. Argentina later claimed the islands in dispute with the UK (See Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands).

Argentina challenged British sovereignty in the Islands on several occasions. From January 25, 1955 through summer of 1956 Argentina maintained the summer station Teniente Esquivel at Ferguson Bay on the Southeastern coast of Thule Island. From 1976 to 1982, Argentina maintained a naval base named Corbeta Uruguay, at Port Faraday, in the lee (southern East coast) of the same island. Although the British discovered the presence of the Argentine base in 1978, no effort was made to remove them until after the Falklands War. The base was eventually removed on June 20, 1982.

Islands

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands consist of two main groups of islands:

• South Georgia and its associated islands, which consist of the island of South Georgia Island, which is by far the largest island in the territory, the islands that immediately surround the main island of South Georgia and some remote and isolated islets west and east-southeast of the main island of South Georgia Island.
• The South Sandwich Islands

For a more detailed list of the islands of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands than the list provided below, see List of sub-antarctic islands:

South Georgia and its associated islands:

• South Georgia Island, the big main island (54°15′00″S, 36°45′00″W)
  • Bird Island
  • Annenkov Island
  • Cooper Island
  • Pickersgill Islands
  • Welcome Islands
  • Willis Islands
  • Trinity Island
  • Black Rocks
• Shag Rocks 185 km west-northwest of South Georgia Island
• Black Rock 169 km west-northwest of South Georgia Island and 16 km southeast of the Shag Rocks
• Clerke Rocks 56 km east-southeast of South Georgia Island

South Sandwich Islands (57°45′00″S, 026°30′00″W):

Orthographic projection centred on the South Sandwich Islands

• Traversay Islands
  • Leskov Island
  • Visokoi Island
  • Zavodovski Island
• Candlemas Islands
  • Candlemas Island
  • Vindication Island
• Bristol Island
• Montagu Island
• Saunders Island
• Southern Thule
  • Bellingshausen Island
  • Cook Island
  • Thule Island

Politics

Howard Pearce.

Executive power is vested in The Queen, and is exercised by the Commissioner, a post held by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. The current Commissioner is Howard Pearce. An Assistant Commissioner deals with policy matters and is also Director of SGSSI Fisheries, responsible for the issue of fishing licenses. An Operations Manager deals with administrative matters relating to the territory. The Financial Secretary and Attorney General of the territory are appointed and hold similar appointments in the Falkland Islands' Government.

As there are no permanent inhabitants on the islands, there is no legislative council and no elections are held. The UK Foreign Office manages the foreign relations of the territory. Since 1982, the territory celebrates Liberation Day on June 14.

The constitution of the territory, the manner in which its government is directed, and the availability of judicial review were discussed in a series of litigations in 2001 to 2005; see in particular Regina v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Appellant) ex parte Quark Fishing Limited [2005] UKHL 57. Although its government is entirely directed by the UK Foreign Office, it was held that its decisions under that direction could not be challenged as if they were in law decisions of a UK government department; thus the European Convention on Human Rights did not apply.

Geography

South Georgia Group

NASA satellite image of South Georgia island covered with snow.

South Georgia is situated in the South Atlantic Ocean, about 1390 km east-southeast of the Falkland Islands, in 54-55°S, 36-38°W. It has a land area of 3756 km², including satellite islands, but excluding the South Sandwich Islands which form a separate island group. The main island itself, also called Pepys Island (San Pedro in Spanish), has an area of 3528 km². It is mountainous, with 11 peaks over 2,000 m high, their slopes furrowed with deep gorges filled with glaciers (Fortuna Glacier being the largest). Geologically, it consists of gneiss and argillaceous schists, with no trace of fossils, showing that the island is, like the Falkland Islands, a surviving fragment of some greater land-mass now vanished, most probably indicating a former extension of the Andean system. The German expedition sent out to observe the transit of Venus was stationed at Royal Bay, on the south-east side of the island in 1882.

The climate in the islands is variable and harsh, with mostly westerly winds throughout the year interspersed with periods of calm; nearly all precipitation falls as snow. Most of the islands, rising steeply from the sea, are rugged and mountainous; South Georgia (Pepys Island) is largely barren and has steep, glacier-covered mountains; the South Sandwich Islands are of volcanic origin with some active volcanoes. Mount Paget on South Georgia is 2,934 m high. The islands have prevailing weather conditions that generally make them difficult to approach by ship; they are also subject to active volcanism. The north coast of South Georgia has several large bays, which provide good anchorage; reindeer, introduced early in the 20th century, live on South Georgia.

South Sandwich Islands

CIA map of the Islands

There are 11 mostly volcanic islands (not counting tiny satellite islands and rocks nearby those main islands) forming an island arc, from north to south. As a group, the South Sandwich Islands are located at approximately 57°45′00″S, 026°30′00″W:

Subgroups

• Islands 1 through 3 are collectively known as Traversay Islands
• Islands 4 and 5 are collectively known as Candlemas Islands
• Islands 1 through 5 are collectively known as Traversay Islands (wider sense)
• Islands 9 through 11 are collectively known as Southern Thule

Islands 6 through 8, which are also the three largest islands, are not part of any subgroup.

The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, although Thule Island used to have a permanently manned Argentinian research station from 1976 to 1982 (for details, see paragraph on History above).

There are automatic weather stations on Thule (Morrell) Island and Zavodovski.

To the northwest of Zavodovski Island is the Protector Shoal, a submarine volcano.

Economy

This postage stamp depicting a fin whale was issued in 1963.

As there are no native inhabitants, economic activity in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is limited. The territory has revenues of less than $300,000 against expenditures of nearly $500,000. The main sources of income for the territory include fishing, tourism and sale of postage stamps.

Fishing

Fishing takes place around South Georgia and in adjacent waters in some months of the year, with fishing licences sold by the territory for Patagonian Toothfish, finfish and krill. There is a potential source of income from harvesting fin fish and krill. Fishing licenses bring in a handful of million pounds a year, most of which is spent on fishery protection and research. The three currently exploited commercial fisheries are Patagonian Toothfish, Icefish, and Krill. All fisheries are regulated and managed in accordance with the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR) system.

Tourism

Tourism has become a bigger source of income in recent years, with many cruise ships visiting the islands. The territory gains income from landing charges.

Postage Stamps

A large source of income from abroad also comes from the issue of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands postage stamps which are produced in the UK.

See also

• Sub-antarctic islands

External links

• Detailed map of South Georgia
• King Edward Point research station
• Bird Island research station
• CIA World Factbook entry
• South Georgia official website
• A Postcard from South Georgia by Roderick Eime
• Photos from South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands from Pbase.com
• Gazetteer: Geographic Names of Antarctica and Subantarctic (with coordinates and heights)
• Gazetteer: Geographic Names of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
• Information on the whaling stations
• Operation Paraquat
• Argentine invasion of South Georgia
• Argentine Government website with a map of SGSSI
• Virtual visitors guide to the cemeteries of South Georgia
• South Georgia Heritage Trust
• South Georgia photos
• South Georgia images
• Seventeenth Century Map featuring Roché Island
• Eighteenth Century Map featuring Roché Island
• George Forster, A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4 and 5 (2 vols.) , London, 1777.
• James Cook, Chart of the Discoveries made in the South Atlantic Ocean, in His Majestys Ship Resolution, under the Command of Captain Cook, in January 1775, W. Strahan and T. Cadel, London, 1777.
• R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.

References

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2. ↑ Hungary: 500,000 est. in the 1980s, Hungary - Minority Groups in U.S. Library of Congress Country study.
3. ↑ Poland: 15,000–50,000 est., early 1990s Poland - Gypsies in U.S. Library of Congress Country study.
4. ↑ Russia - The 2002 Russian census recorded 182,766 Roma(Gypsies)
5. ↑ Spain: 600,000–800,000 est., 1988, Spain - The Gypsies in U.S. Library of Congress Country study.
6. ↑ Ukraine - The 2001 Ukrainian census recorded 47,587 Roma(Gypsies)
7. ↑ ^a b Fraser 1992.
8. ↑ Gray 2003
9. ↑ In 1845, Emerson's Journal records that he was reading the Bhagavad Gita and Henry Thomas Colebrooke's Essays on the Vedas (Sachin N. Pradhan, India in the United States: Contribution of India and Indians in the United States of America, Bethesda, MD: SP Press International, Inc., 1996), p 12.
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21. ↑ M. Weiss, What Causes the Hubble Redshift?, entry in the Physics FAQ (1994), available via John Baez's website
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26. ↑ Egami, E., et al., Spitzer and Hubble Space Telescope Constraints on the Physical Properties of the z~7 Galaxy Strongly Lensed by A2218, The Astrophysical Journal (2005), v. 618, Issue 1, pp. L5-L8 [4].
27. ↑ Pelló, R., Schaerer, D., Richard, J., Le Borgne, J.-F., & Kneib, J.P., ISAAC/VLT observations of a lensed galaxy at z = 10.0, Astronomy and Astrophysics (2004), 416, L35 [5].
28. ↑ Daniel Allen Butler (1998). Unsinkable: The Full Story of RMS Titanic, Stackpole Books. ISBN 081171814X. Read this book on Google Print
29. ↑ The Britannic was originally named Gigantic, its name was changed after the Titanic sank. Bonner, Kit & Bonner, Carolyn (2003). Great Ship Disasters, pp.60, MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0760313369. Read this book on Google Print
30. ↑ ^a b The exact number of people on board is unknown, because the only complete passenger and crew list was lost. These numbers were taken from the final report by the U.S. Senate Inquiry
31. ↑ Hinkle, Marla, "Behind The Chocolate Curtain". The Morning News, February 8, 2004.
32. ↑ Large fragments of the hull discovered suggest the ship brokeinto three major sections rather than the previously believed 2. However, the full analysis will not be published until 2006. USAToday's report on the hull fragments
33. ↑ Edward Kamuda, Karen Kamuda, and Paul Louden-Brown, comps., "Titanic Myths," The Titanic Historical Society.
34. ↑ "More About Sarnoff, Part One," PBS.
35. ↑ "Scientists ponder Titanic discoveries", CNN, December 5, 2005.
36. ↑ Lindsay, Jay, "Scientists unveil new discoveries from Titanic wreck", Associated Press, December 5, 2005.
37. ↑ Katherine Felkins, A. Jankovic, and H.P. Leighly, Jr.,The Royal Mail Ship Titanic: Did a Metallurgical Failure Cause a Night to Remember?; Alan Bruzel, Analysis of Steel from the Titanic
38. ↑ Comprehensive resume of ownership questions
39. ↑ Corporate Profile. RMS Titanic, Inc.. URL accessed on February 1, 2006.
40. ↑ Expeditions. RMS Titanic, Inc.. URL accessed on February 1, 2006.
41. ↑ United States court of appeals for the fourth circuit, R.M.S. TITANIC, INCORPORATED vs. THE WRECKED AND ABANDONED VESSEL - January 31, 2006
42. ↑ Commented excerpts of the Court of Appeals decision
43. ↑ Roy Stokes, Death in the Irish Sea: The Sinking of the RMS Leinster (Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 1999)
44. ↑ "Jackie Robinson Profile", about.com
45. ↑ "Is Barbershop Right About Rosa Parks?", Slate, September 27 2005
46. ↑ "Parks Recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts from an interview with Lynn Neary", NPR, 1992
47. ↑ "Civil rights icon Rosa Parks dies at 92", CNN.com, October 25 2005
48. ↑ Audio interview of Parks linked to from "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies", National Public Radio, October 25 2005
49. ↑ Rosa Parks, James Haskins (1992). Rosa Parks: My Story, Dial Books. ISBN 0803706731.
50. ↑ "Civil rights icon Rosa Parks dies at 92", CNN.com, October 25 2005
51. ↑ "Heroes and Icons: Rosa Parks", Time.com, June 14 1999
52. ↑ "The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott", Montgomery Advertiser, 2005
53. ↑ "Browder v. Gayle: The Women Before Rosa Parks", Tolerance.org, 2005
54. ↑   "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies", New York Times, October 25 2005
55. ↑ "Assailant Recognized Rosa Parks", Detroit Free Press, September 3 1994
56. ↑ "Man Gets Prison Term For Attack on Rosa Parks", San Francisco Chronicle, August 8 1995
57. ↑ CNN.com - Image Awards rekindle 'Barbershop' controversy - Mar. 9, 2003. URL accessed on December 4, 2005.
58. ↑ "'I understand I am a symbol, but I have never gotten used to being a public person'", Associated Press State & Local Wire, December 4 2004
59. ↑ "Medical records show Rosa Parks had dementia as early as 2002", Associated Press State & Local Wire, January 13 2005
60. ↑ "Parks settles OutKast lawsuit", Detroit News, April 15 2005
61. ↑ "Parks to remain private in death", Detroit News, November 3, 2005
62. ↑ "Tri-state Judge Says Rosa Parks' Work Goes On", WPCO News, October 25 2005
63. ↑ "Rosa Parks: Her simple act of protest galvanized America's civil rights revolution", Time, June 14 1999
64. ↑ "Rosa Parks Honored on Metro Bus Fleet", King County Metro Online
65. ↑ National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day, American Public Transportation Association, accessed December 1, 2005.
66. ↑ President Signs H.R. 4145 to Place Statue of Rosa Parks in U.S. Capitol. URL accessed on December 4, 2005.
67. ↑ Researchers contributing to this area of inquiry mostly include psychologists, psychometricians, geneticists, sociologists, and anthropologists.
68. ↑ Reynolds et al. 1987; Roth et al. 2001; Rushton 2000; Shuey 1958; Herrnstein and Murray 1994; Lynn 1991a. For samples of individual studies showing similar results, see the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, reported by Broman et al. 1987; the Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study reported by Weinberg et al. 1992; also Lynn 1977a, Lynn 1977b, Lynn 1982, Lynn 1987, Lynn 1991a; Lynn et al. 1991; Lynn and Hampson 1986a Lynn and Hampson 1986b; Lynn et al. 1987a, Lynn et al. 1987b; Lynn et al. 1988; Lynn and Holmshaw 1990; Lynn and Shigehasa 1991; Montie and Fagan 1988; Rushton 1997; Rushton and Jensen 2003; Rushton et al. 2003; Notcutt 1950; Jensen 1993; Jensen and Reynolds 1982; Peoples et al. 1995. For scientific consensus statements see Gottfredson 1997a and Neisser et al. 1996.
69. ↑ Other clustering: Thernstrom and Thernstrom 2003; Jensen 1993; Jensen and Whang 1994; Lynn and Holmshaw 1990; Lynn and Shigehasa 1991; Ho et al. 1980a, Ho et al. 1980b; Harvey_et_al. 1994; Rushton 1991. The East-Asian/White/Black difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education (Peoples et al. 1995). Lynn 1996 found that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. Broman et al. (1987) found that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.
70. ↑ For this calculation, Herrnstein and Murray alter the mean IQ (100) of the U.S. National Longitudinal Survey of Youth's population sample by randomly deleting individuals below an IQ of 103 until the population mean reaches 103. This calculation was conducted twice and averaged together to avoid error from the random selection.(Herrnstein_and_Murray 1994, pp. 364-368) Discussed further in the section #Significance of group IQ differences #Within societies.
71. ↑ whether or not this carries over to adulthood remains to be investigated
72. ↑ Wilson et al. 2001, Cooper et al. 2003
73. ↑ Schwartz 2001, Stephens 2003
74. ↑ Sternberg et al. 2005, Suzuki and Aronson 2005, Smedley and Smedley 2005, Helms et al. 2005, [6]. Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than between them.Lewontin 1972
75. ↑ Risch et al. 2002, Tang et al. 2005, Rosenberg et al. 2005: "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".
76. ↑ Mekel-Bobrov et al. 2005, Evans et al. 2005, Wang et al. 2005, Voight et al. 2006. See the NYTimes' "Researchers Say Human Brain Is Still Evolving" (September 8, 2005), and Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story (March 7, 2006) for discussion.
77. ↑ Tang et al. 2005
78. ↑ Degler 1992; Loehlin et al. 1975
79. ↑ Broca 1873, Bean 1906, Mall 1909, Morton 1839, Pearl 1934, Vint 1934
80. ↑ Boas 1938
81. ↑ Garrett 1961; Lynn 2001, pp. 45–54
82. ↑ Lynn 2001 pp. 67–69
83. ↑ Jensen 1969
84. ↑ Gould 1996
85. ↑ Kohn 2006
86. ↑ Rushton and Jensen 2005a
87. ↑ Snyderman and Rothman 1988; Whether this still applies today is unknown.
88. ↑ Sackett et al. 2004
89. ↑ Glazer 1994. The position that knowledge of what is is dependent on statements of what is good has been criticized by microbiologist Bernard Davis as the "moralistic fallacy," an implied converse of the naturalistic fallacy(Davis 1978). The latter refers to an effort to derive an ought directly from an is (for example, war is good because it's part of human nature) and the former refers to an effort to derive an is from an ought (for example, war is not part of human nature because it's bad).
90. ↑ "...Might it be fair also to say that the champions of 'no difference' in race or sex, or intelligence ... are the guardians of a greater 'untruth' that allows people to live together in mutual harmony, implying that these critics really deserve to be praised as our protectors even when they are factually wrong? ... I think also it is roughly how the self-appointed guardians choose to present themselves - leaving aside, usually, the step of frankly admitting that they are promoting factual untruths when they know that they are." While these scientists may, he argues, be driven by personal social or political concerns, "it is harder for me to caste a man like Philipe Rushton, taking an example from the other side, in a similar light. ... Rushton has to be admitted to be promoting a segment of the pan-human chromosome that is very distantly situated from his own locus, Ontario, supporting a locus situated at the far end of Asia." Hamilton concludes: "Any human science not aiming for factual truth in human social matters is as inevitably doomed to bring costly accidents in the long run as would be an unfactual science of technology" (Hamilton & Dawkins 2002, pp. 332-334)
91. ↑ Dawkins 2000
92. ↑ Gottfredson 2005b
93. ↑ The Blank Slate p. 145
94. ↑ Pinker 2005
95. ↑ Pinker 2006 predicts "the dangerous idea of the next decade [will be] that groups of people may differ genetically in their average talents and temperaments . . . Perhaps geneticists will forbear performing these tests, but one shouldn't count on it. The tests could very well emerge as by-products of research in biomedicine, genealogy, and deep history which no one wants to stop." Stock 2002 argues "We will have to consider how much our genes shape personality, intelligence, athletic talent, musical ability, memory, temperament, [and] sexual orientation [as] such sensitive issues will not remain in limbo much longer . . . The answers will be just another byproduct of [advances that allow us] to find useful correlations between our genes and key aspects of who we are. How we respond to this new information will be one of the biggest social and intellectual challenges of the coming decades, for we will learn a great deal about ourselves that many people would rather not face" (pp. 44-47, also p. 105). Murray 2005 discusses the issue of group differences also in the context of age groups and sexual orientation groups.
96. ↑ http://www.tolerance.org/maps/hate/index.html.
97. ↑ Ulric Neisser, who was the chairman of the APA's 1995 taskforce on intelligence research, gave support for Richard Lynn's argument in Lynn's The Science of Human Diversity: A History of the Pioneer Fund (2001). Neisser states in his book review (Neisser 2004) that, though race and intelligence research "turns [his] stomach . . . Lynn's claim is exaggerated but not entirely without merit: 'Over those 60 years, the research funded by Pioneer has helped change the face of social science.'" Neisser concludes in agreement with Lynn and against William Tucker's critical book on the Pioneer Fund (Tucker 2002), also reviewed, that the world is ultimately better off having had the Pioneer Fund: "Lynn reminds us that Pioneer has sometimes sponsored useful research - research that otherwise might not have been done at all. By that reckoning, I would give it a weak plus."
98. ↑ Tucker 2002
99. ↑ Pinker 2006
100. ↑ Pinker 2006, Tucker 2002
101. ↑ For example, see Herrnstein and Murray 1994; Lynn 1991a; Lynn 2006.
102. ↑ Moehler et al. 2006
103. ↑ Sackett et al. 2004 p. 11
104. ↑ Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994
105. ↑ Lynn 2006
106. ↑ Sociologist Thomas Volken argues the data for national IQs is "highly deficient," citing limited sampling and varying tests and years (Volken). In a review of The Bell Curve, controversial critic Leon Kamin writes that "Lynn's distortions and misrepresentations of the data constitute a truly venomous racism, combined with scandalous disregard for scientific objectivity."(Kamin 1995). John M. Grohol comments of the data massaging by Lynn and Vanhanen: "In many cases arbitrary adjustments were made by authors to account for the Flynn effect or when the authors thought that the studies were not representative of the ethnic or social composition of the nation."[7] In contrast to Kamin's strongly worded attack on Lynn, W. D. Hamilton described Lynn in a review of another of Lynn's books as doing "an excellent job with the facts" and being "brave [and] thick-skinned ... to swim against ... popular antirealistic currents."[8] Examples of problematic national IQ figures include that the stated average IQ score of 59 for Equatorial Guinea is based on one test of 48 children aged 10-14 in 1984; the Ethiopian average is derived from a study of Ethiopians who immigrated to Israel a year prior, and whose low scores were thought by the original authors to be a reflection of temporary adjustment to a different culture and language (note that this data is not used in the averages presented below). Kamin also argued Lynn selectively excluded data showing a similar score in Whites and sub-Saharan Africans: "Lynn chose to ignore the substance of Crawford-Nutt's paper, which reported that 228 black high school students in Soweto scored an average of 45 correct responses on the Matrices--HIGHER than the mean of 44 achieved by the same-age white sample on whom the test's norms had been established and well above the mean of Owen's coloured pupils." (Kamin 1995)
107. ↑ Gene Expression 2003
108. ↑ Burchard et al. 2003;Parra et al. 1998
109. ↑ Willms and Chen 1989
110. ↑ Neisser et al. 1996
111. ↑ McDaniel 2005
112. ↑ Grudnick and Kranzler 2001
113. ↑ see Neisser 1997, p. 80 for a consensus statement
114. ↑ see Race and intelligence (Average gaps among races)#Reaction_time
115. ↑ Gravlee et al. 2003a, Gravlee et al. 2003b; Jantz and Jantz 2000, Jantz 2001
116. ↑ Roth et al. 2001
117. ↑ Gottfredson 2005b; Snyderman and Rothman 1987; Neisser et al. 1996; Gottfredson 1997a
118. ↑ See for example Gottfredson 1997a
119. ↑ Murry and Herrnstein argue that it would not be good to learn that the gap were predominantly environmental nor bad to learn that the gap were predominantly genetic. Instead, they argue that that what matters is how hard the gap is to change. They argue that the history of attempts to reduce the gap through environmental intervention have produced no definitive, lasting results. As such, even if the gap were entirely environmental, we would be no closer to changing it. They also argue that knowing whether the gap is genetic or environmental should not affect how individuals treat one another. First, because individuals should be treated as individuals rather than as groups. Second, because the reality of the gap is independent of the cause of the gap (that is, it would make no difference to learn that the gap were "only" caused by the environmnet.
120. ↑ Boykin 1994
121. ↑ Ogbu 1978; Ogbu 2003. See Jensen 1998b, pp. 511-512 for a critique of these arguments.
122. ↑ Steele and Aronson 1995 found that making race salient when taking a test of cognitive ability negatively affected high-ability African American students. They name this phenomenon stereotype threat. Sackett et al. 2004 point out that these findings are widely misinterpreted to mean that eliminating stereotype threat eliminated the Black-White performance gap. See also Cohen and Sherman 2005, Helms 2005, Wicherts 2005 and Sackett et al. 2005 for discussion of the implications of stereotype threat for race and intelligence research.
123. ↑ Nisbett 1998
124. ↑ See Race and intelligence (Culture-only or partially-genetic explanation)#Nongenetic biological factors
125. ↑ Colom et al. 2005
126. ↑ (Wicherts et al. 2004)
127. ↑ Nisbett 2005
128. ↑ Rushton and Jensen 2005a
129. ↑ For example, see Rushton and Jensen 2003
130. ↑ Rushton 1989a
131. ↑ Plomin et al. 2001
132. ↑ Rushton and Jensen 2005a, cited in "Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal", and Murray 2005
133. ↑ Mekel-Bobrov et al. 2005, Evans et al. 2005, Wang et al. 2005, Voight et al. 2006. See the NYTimes' "Researchers Say Human Brain Is Still Evolving" (September 8, 2005), and Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story (March 7, 2006) for discussion.
134. ↑ Snyderman and Rothman 1987. Critics accept the results of this survey. Robert Sternberg, for example, defends the minority view, stating "science isn't done by majority rule" (1995).[9]
135. ↑ Murray lists race differences in brain size, along with "IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of transracial adoption studies, the correlation of the black-white difference with the g-loadedness of tests, regression to racial means across the range of IQ, or other relevant data" among the evidence omitted from the task force report.[10]
136. ↑ Pinker 2006, Stock 2002 pp. 44-47.
137. ↑ Murray and Herrnstein 1994, Murray 2005
138. ↑ Gordon 1997; Gottfredson 1997b
139. ↑ ^a b The criteria for the "Middle-Class Values" index were: (for men) obtained high school degree (or more), were in labor force (but could be unemployed) throughout previous year (1989), never incarcerated, were still married to their first wife; (for women) obtained a high school degree, had never given birth out of wedlock, never incarcerated, were still marreid to their first husband. Individuals unable to work and those still in school were excluded from this analysis, as well as never-married individuals who satisfied all the other criteria. Poverty is not a criterion, nor is having children.
140. ↑ Bowles and Gintis 2002. Note that race, schooling and IQ are all correlated, so considering them as separate factors lessens the apparent effect of IQ.
141. ↑ these values were taken from Kangas 1999, which reprints U.S. Census data which was originally reported by Hacker 1995, p. 105. Drummond 2005 challenges the factual accuracy of other reporting by Kangas 1999.
142. ↑ Thomas Volken, "The Impact of National IQ on Income and Growth."
143. ↑ Jones and Schneider 2005
144. ↑ La Griffe du Lion 2004
145. ↑ This theory is discussed by Jensen 1998b (pp. 435-437), Lynn 1991b and Rushton 2000 in general and by Steve Sailer with respect to Guns, Germs, and Steel. See Race and intelligence (Culture-only or partially-genetic explanation)#Rushton's application of r-K theory. .. Voight et al. 2006 state generally that "a number of recent studies have detected more signals of adaptation in non-African populations than in Africans, and some of those studies have conjectured that non-Africans might have experienced greater pressures to adapt to new environments than Africans have" (Kayser et al. 2003, Akey et al. 2004, Storz et al. 2004, Stajich and Hahn 2005, Carlson et al. 2005).
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