Anabaptist

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Anabaptists (Greek ana+baptizo "re-baptizers", German: Wiedertäufer) were Christians of the Radical Reformation. The term was coined by critics, who objected to the Anabaptist practice of rebaptizing adults who had previously been baptized as infants. Anabaptists believed infant baptism was not valid. Various groups at various times have been called Anabaptist, but this article focuses primarily on the Anabaptists of 16th century Europe.

Designation and definition

The present concept and idea of Anabaptism or rebaptism has existed at least since the 2nd century, and some Anabaptists also point to the 1st century example of the Apostle Paul in Acts chapter 19. Montanus, the Montanists, and Tertullian (2nd and 3rd centuries) denied infant baptism, practiced believer's baptism, and rebaptized those baptized by heretics. The Donatists (4th century) re-baptized those who had been baptized by bishops who were traditors, or who were from churches stained by fellowship with traditors^[147]. Anabaptists (rebaptizers) were made criminals under the code of Justinian (A.D. 529). With anti-trinitarianism, it was one of two 'heresies' or schisms, punishable by death because of its political implications.

Their enemies and opposers gave Anabaptists their name; it is a term that means "rebaptizers." Nevertheless, the Anabaptists did not think of believer's baptism as "rebaptism". They did not recognize infant baptism as properly administered the first time. Though the main Anabaptist groups disagreed with few important Protestant doctrines, even the Protestants called them heretics. Zwingli called them Wiedertäufer (Dutch, Wederdooper; Latin, Anabaptistae), Täufer (Dutch, Dooper or Doopsgezinden), and Catabaptistae (drowners^[148]). Luther called them Schwärmer (fanatics, enthusiasts). They have also been known as Bolsheveki and "Stepchildren of the Reformation". The most common names the Anabaptists used for themselves were brethren, believers and Christians.

The word Anabaptism may be used to describe a Protestant group baptizing Christians who were baptized in infancy and/or who come to them from other bodies, any of the 16th century "radical" dissenters, or the denominations descending from the followers of Menno Simons. The use of the term Anabaptism does not necessarily imply claims to uniformity between the groups thus denominated. Today the descendants of the 16th century European movement (particularly the Amish, Hutterites, & Mennonites) are the most common bodies referred to as Anabaptist. Yet other bodies (such as the early English Baptists) were also referred to by their enemies as Anabaptists, and are clearly Anabaptists in the generally accepted sense of the term. The majority of Baptists further engage in a practice others consider "rebaptizing" in that they usually rebaptize even adult believers who were baptized by some mode other than immersion or who had not had a "believers' baptism". Christian church historians generally believe that there is no historical continuity between anabaptists in the first few centuries of Christianity and later anabaptist groups.

Anabaptist origins

Forerunners

Though the majority opinion is that Anabaptists began with the Radical Reformers in the 16th century, certain people and groups may still legitimately be considered their forerunners. Peter Chelcicky, 15th century Bohemian Reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.

In the following points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters:

1. Some followed Menno Simons in teaching that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother, but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him by the Word. Some even said that he passed through his mother, as water through a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculptures of the 15th century and earlier, we often find represented this idea, originated by Marcion in the 2nd century. The Anabaptists were accused of denying the Incarnation of Christ: a charge that Menno Simons repeatedly rejected.
2. They condemned oaths, and also the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts.
3. The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii.
4. Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer, who belongs to God's kingdom, must not fill any office, nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed.
5. Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to Matt.18:15 seq. But no force is to be used towards them.

Some sects calling themselves Spirituales or Perfecti also held that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet.

They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in England condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims "that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's hand." This was between 1518 and 1521.

Views of origins

Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them, and the attempts of their friends to vindicate them. It was long popular to simply lump all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau Prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden (also Jan Bockelson van Leiden, Jan of Leyden), and Thomas Muentzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and this most radical element.

The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with the work of Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman (1852-1933), whom Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist Historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism. Though a number of theories exist concerning origins, the three main ideas are that,

1. Anabaptists began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (Monogenesis),
2. Anabaptists began through several independent movements (polygenesis), and
3. Anabaptists are a continuation of New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity).

Monogenesis

A number of scholars (e.g. Bender, Estep, Friedmann) have seen all the Anabaptists as rising out of the Swiss Brethren movement of Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Georg Blaurock, et al. The older view among Mennonite historians generally held that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich, and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to South Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and North Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In this view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Grebel baptized Georg Blaurock, and Blaurock baptized other followers. This remains the most popular single time posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. But in the last quarter of the 20th century, Deppermann, Packull, and others suggested that February 24, 1527 at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. This correlates with the following polygenesis theory.

Polygenesis

James M. Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis". That article, emphasizing distinctive characteristics and distinct sources, has become a widely accepted treatment of the plural origins of Anabaptism. According to these authors, South German-Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism," Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman". Pilgram Marpeck's Vermanung of 1542 was deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. The Hutterites used Melchior Hoffman's commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. David Joris, a disciple of Hoffman, was the most important Anabaptist leader in the Netherlands before 1540. Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen established links between Thomas Muentzer and Hans Hut, and the work of Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull clearly showed the influence of Thomas Muentzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Steven Ozment's work linked Hans Denck and Hans Hut with Thomas Muentzer, Sebastian Franck, and others. Calvin Pater has shown that Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in areas including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism.

Apostolic succession

Main article: Theology of Anabaptism

Another theory is that the 16th century Anabaptists were part of an apostolic succession of churches (or church perpetuity) from the time of Christ. According to this idea there had been a continuity of small groups outside the Roman Catholic Church from A.D. 30 to 1525 (which continues also to the present). Proponents of this view point out many common expressions of belief in these Catholic dissenters. The opponents of this theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, and/or that they had no connection with one another. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of "true church" movements.^[149] The writings of John T. Christian, New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary professor, contain perhaps the best scholarly presentation of this successionist view. Somewhat related to this is that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldenses are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Estep asserts "the Waldenses disappeared in Switzerland a century before the rise of the Anabaptist movement." Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, Delbert Grätz, and Thieleman van Braght all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.

Types of Anabaptists

It is beneficial to recognize different types among the Anabaptists, although these categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists." He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hübmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Muentzer, Storch, et al. as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdés, Sebastian Castellio, and Faustus Socinus as rationalists. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, "The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus."

Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use Anabaptist to define the larger movement, and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term Anabaptist for those who rebaptized persons already baptized in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define Anabaptists that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann.

Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch Anabaptism (Menno, Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck).

Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites, who occupied and held the German city of Münster in 1534-1535, and the Batenburgers, who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s.

Zwickau prophets and the Peasants' War

Main articles: Thomas Muentzer and Peasants' War

On December 27, 1521, three "prophets", influenced by and in turn influencing Thomas Muentzer, appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau: Thomas Dreschel, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stübner. The crisis came in the so-called Peasants' War in South Germany in 1525. In its origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leadership of Muentzer, a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the community of goods.

The Münster Rebellion

Main articles: Münster Rebellion and Münster

A second and more determined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Münster in Westphalia (1532-1535), led by Bernhard Rothmann, Bernhard Knipperdolling, Jan Matthys and John of Leiden.

Miscellany

The first leaders of the movement in Zürich — Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, Balthasar Hübmaier — were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew.

In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during the 16th and 17th centuries, but there is no evidence that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever adopted the principles of the Münster sect. Many of the followers of Muentzer and Bockelson seem to have fled from persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be subjected to a persecution scarcely less severe in England. The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. Their Christology and negative attitude towards the state rather indicate, as in the case of John Wyclif, Jan Hus and the Fraticelli (Brethren), an affinity to the Cathars and other medieval sects. But this affiliation is hard to establish.

The earliest Anabaptists of Zürich allowed that the Picardi or Waldensians had, in contrast with Rome and the Reformers, truth on their side, yet did not claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist sects, which undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe. Later on Hermann Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish inquisition, collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were widespread during the 15th century over north France and Flanders. It would appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang up everywhere independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and through it a new lease of life. Ritschl discerned in it the leaven of the Fraticelli or Franciscan Tertiaries.

In Moravia, if what Alexander Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves Apostolici, and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 12th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and invocation of saints.

The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost, went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli), had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and after meals. Zeiler also in his German Itinerary (1618) describes their way of life. The Lord's Supper, or bread-breaking, was a commemoration of the Passion, held once a year. They sat at long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed, and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate, the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school, each having his bed and blanket. They were taught reading, writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and the girls married the men chosen for them.

On April 12, 1549, certain London Anabaptists brought before a commission of bishops asserted:

"That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the outward man sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was no Trinity of Persons; that Christ was only a holy prophet and not at all God; that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to heaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism of infants was not profitable."

One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is that they regarded any true religious reform as involving social amelioration. The socialism of the 16th century was necessarily Christian and Anabaptist. Lutheranism was more attractive to grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor and oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians never converted the Anabaptists. In Austrian-controlled territories, the Jesuits had somewhat better success in persuading or coercing many Hutterites to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church.

Social scientist Robert Cialdini (see Mind Control) notes that early Anabaptists were unusual among doomsday groups because rather than disintegrating in the face of false doomsday predictions, Anabaptists were able to grow and prosper through extraordinarly effective recruitment efforts. He notes that:

"When the Dutch Anabaptists saw their prophesied year of destruction, 1533, pass uneventfully, they became rabid seekers after converts, pouring unprecedented amounts of energy into the cause. One extraordinarily eloquent missionary, Jakob van Kampen, is reported to have baptized 100 persons in single day. So powerful was the snowballing social evidence in support of the Anabaptist position that it rapidly over-whelmed the disconfirming physical evidence and turned two-thirds of Holland's great cities into adherents".

He theorizes that groups of 'true believers' suddenly shift from secret conspirators to zealous missionaries precisely when direct disconfirmation of their beliefs renders them least convincing to outsiders because publicity and recruitment provide the only remaining hope, that, through social evidence, "their threatened but treasured beliefs would become truer". Few contemporary doomsday groups are as successful as these early Anabaptists were at actually gaining new converts in the face of false physical evidence.

Persecutions and migrations

Much historic Roman Catholic and Protestant literature has represented the Anabaptists as groups who preached false doctrine and led people into apostasy. That negative historiography remained popular for about four centuries. The Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorted to torture and other types of physical abuse, in attempts both to curb the growth of the movement and bring about the salvation of the heretics (through recantation). The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Reformation Anabaptists. Felix Manz became the first martyr in 1527. On May 20, 1527, Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". It has been said that a "16th century man who did not drink to excess, curse, or abuse his workmen or family could be suspected of being an Anabaptist and thus persecuted." [1] Estep estimates that thousands died in Europe in the sixteenth century.

Thieleman J. van Braght's Martyrs Mirror describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists, such as Dirk Willems, in Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and other parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass immigrations to North America by Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites.

Anabaptists today

Several existing denominational bodies may be legitimately regarded as the successors of the Continental Anabaptists — Amish, Baptists, Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Bruderhof Communities and Quakers. Some writers prefer to distinguish institutionally lineal descendants (Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites) and spiritual descendants (Baptists, Brethren, the Bruderhof Communities, and Seventh-day Adventists; the Quakers share the distinction of also being a peace church). Nevertheless, some historical connections have been demonstrated for all of these spiritual descendants, though perhaps not as clearly as the notable institutionally lineal descendants. However, although many see the more well known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, the Anabaptist bodies of today are largely no longer ethnically descended from the Continental Anabaptists. Total membership in Mennonite, Brethren in Christ and related churches totals 1,297,716 as of 2003 with about 60 percent in Africa, Asia and Latin America.^[150]

One of the historical Anabaptist doctrines — that people must personally, volitionally, and consciously relate to God — is a doctrine found among much of Evangelical Protestantism, even though these churches may not be historically linked to the Anabaptists.

Today in response to post-modernism, what some theologians are calling 'the end of Christendom' and the global ecological crisis, some churches and theologians are drawing upon the Anabaptist traditions as a paradigm for Christian spirituality in the 21st century. This movement, sometimes referred to as 'neo-anabaptism', includes theologians and communities from wide diversity of Christian denominations which are not part of the Historic Peace Churches, yet who see in the witness of the 16th century radical reformers an authentic witness to early Christianity and to the life and teachings of Christ. Scholars who are sometimes identified with this line of thinking include Stanley Hauerwas, Nancey Murphy, Lee Camp, Richard Hays, Craig A. Carter, James McClendon, and Michael Cartwright.

Sojourners magazine editor Jim Wallis has said that Mennonite Theologian John H. Yoder "inspired a whole generation of Christians to follow the way of Jesus into social action and peacemaking." The neo-anabaptist communities and theologians are also a direct result of this legacy. Neo-Anabaptist communities are often identifiable by their desire to live as a prophetic alternative to larger society through their commitment to Christ’s Sermon on the Mount as normative for the Christian life when empowered by the Holy Spirit. Outworkings of this spirituality include simple yet joyful lifestyle, peace and justice making, the practice of nonviolence, communal living and the voluntary sharing of goods, particularly with those in need.

The Anabaptist heritage

• Freedom of religion
• Priesthood of all believers
• Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice
• Pacifism
• Ordinances, not sacraments

All those who hold the idea of a free church and freedom of religion (sometimes called separation of church and state) are greatly indebted to the Anabaptists. When it was introduced ^{[citation needed]} by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom independent of the state was a radical idea, and unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy and Peter Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. ("Anarchism" from The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910 By Peter Kropotkin)

According to Estep, "Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy."

Genealogists are also indebted to the Anabaptists, because Anabaptism was part of the cause for Protestant churches adopting the confirmation service, and baptismal registers came into being.

See also

• Peace churches
• Christian anarchism
• Radical Reformation
• Protestant Reformation
• Shunning
• Simple living
• Abecedarians
• Ambrosians
• Christian Peacemaker Teams

Footnotes

1. ↑ Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press, 1998, pp 60-70.
2. ↑ Burkert, 415n15
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4. ↑ Encarta Encyclopedia
5. ↑ The A.A. Fact File, 'The Recovery Program'
6. ↑ The A.A. Fact File, 'The Structure of A.A.'
7. ↑ The A.A. Fact Files, 'The Recovery Program'
8. ↑ The A.A. Fact Files, 'The Recovery Program'
9. ↑ Police chief pursues post in Ann Arbor (1-25-2001). Cheektowaga Times.
10. ↑ Information obtained from TopoZone.com.
11. ↑ Fun Facts (2005). Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau. Access September 6, 2005.
12. ↑ Ann Arbor. MichiganVacations.com. Accessed August 18, 2005.
13. ↑ Average High/Low Temperatures for KYIP. Weather Underground (wunderground.com). Accessed August 17, 2005.
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15. ↑ City Guide — Dance. arborweb.com. Accessed August 18, 2005.
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17. ↑ Naked Mile Data Page. goodspeedupdate.com.
18. ↑ Michigan's Ann Arbor Railroads — Building the Ann Arbor. Central Michigan University — Clarke Historical Library. Accessed September 1, 2005.
19. ↑ Mulcahy, John (August 28, 2005). Is commuter rail finally on fast track? Federal grant gets Ann Arbor-Detroit link moving. Ann Arbor News. Accessed September 1, 2005.
20. ↑ Water Treatment (2005). City of Ann Arbor. Accessed September 7, 2005.
21. ↑ Thomas Jefferson to Reverend James Madison, January 31, 1800, The Thomas Jefferson Papers (American Memory from the Library of Congress)
22. ↑ "Official Site of the Atlanta Falcons - Falcons History", NFL
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26. ↑ "Atlanta Falcons (1966-Present)", Sports E-Cyclopedia
27. ↑ "Atlanta Falcons", Pro Football Hall of Fame
28. ↑ "Atlanta Falcons (1966-Present)", Sports E-Cyclopedia
29. ↑ "Major Events in Falcons History", NFL
30. ↑ "Atlanta Falcons (1966-Present)", Sports E-Cyclopedia
31. ↑ "Falcons Uniform History", NFL
32. ↑ "Falcons unveil New logo", NFL
33. ↑ Gardell, Matthias (2003). Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism, 269-283, Duke University Press. ISBN 0822330717.
34. ↑ The positions of the AA, the AFA and the Troth:

    From the Asatru Alliance's Bylaws: "The Alliance is apolitical; it is not a front for, nor shall it promote any political views of the 'Right' or 'Left'. Our Sacred temples, groves and Moots shall remain free of any political manifestations." [1]

    From the Asatru Folk Assembly's Bylaws: "The belief that spirituality and ancestral heritage are related has nothing to do with notions of superiority. Asatru is not an excuse to look down on, much less to hate, members of any other race. On the contrary, we recognize the uniqueness and the value of all the different pieces that make up the human mosaic." [2]

    From the Troth's Bylaws: "Discrimination on the basis of race, gender, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation shall not be practiced by the Troth or any affiliated group, whether in membership decisions or in conducting any of its activities." [3]

35. ↑ Gardell, p.276. Referring to Stephen McNallen, Valgard Murray and Edred Thorsson; the respective founders of the AFA, the AA and the Troth, which are the three largest Ásatrú groups in the USA.
36. ↑ Homicide Trends in the U.S.: Racial differences exist, with African American disproportionately represented among homide victims and offenders 2004-09-28
37. ↑ The Marriage Movement and the Black Church, 2004-06-02
38. ↑ An Analysis of Out-of-Wedlock Births in the United States, August 1996
39. ↑ http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0DXK/is_9_21/ai_n6140515
40. ↑ Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary. Theosophical University Press. URL accessed on 2006-03-17.
41. ↑ J. Hampton Keathley, III, Th.M.. Angelology The Doctrine of Angels. URL accessed on 2006-03-17.
42. ↑ Jewish Encyclopedia. "Zoroastrianism", section "Summary". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
43. ↑ Jewish Encyclopedia. "The Babylonian Captivity". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
44. ↑ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. "Zoroastrianism", section 3 "Possible Theological Influence" and section 4, "Angelology and Demonology". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
45. ↑ Lewis Loflin. "Judaism Meets Zoroastrianism". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
46. ↑ Jewish Encyclopedia. "Zoroastrianism", section "The Kingdoms of Good and Evil". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
47. ↑ New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. XII: Trench - Zwingli, pages 530-531. URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
48. ↑ James Patrick Holding. "Did Zoroastrianism Influence Christianity?". URL accessed on 2006-03-15.
49. ↑ Ziemke, Earl F. (1990). The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944-1946, 256, Washington, D. C.: Center of Military History United States Army. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-619027. First Printed 1975-CMH Pub 30-6
50. ↑ The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944-1946, 109.
51. ↑ It has been alleged that Arsenal's promotion, on historical grounds rather than merit, was thanks to underhand actions by the then Arsenal chairman, Sir Henry Norris (see History of Arsenal F.C. for more details). No firm proof has ever been offered, though Chapter Two of Rebels for the Cause (listed below) and this webpage present plenty of supporting evidence. An investigation by Four Four Two magazine reported that financial irregularities had taken place.
52. ↑ Graham was banned for a year by the Football Association for his involvement in the scandal after he admitted he had received an "unsolicited gift" from Hauge. As one of the few football corruption cases where wrongdoing was proven, it is often referenced in the press (e.g. in this Observer article), and is given a detailed treatment in Broken Dreams by Tom Bower (ISBN 0743440331).
53. ↑ Arsenal v. Reed in the Court of Appeal. Michael Simkins LLP. URL accessed on December 14, 2005.
54. ↑ Arsenal go for a makeover. BBC News website. URL accessed on October 14, 2005.
55. ↑ Arsenal announce deal with Emirates. Arsenal.com. URL accessed on April 5, 2006.
56. ↑ Soccer violence declining say fans. BBC News website. URL accessed on October 13, 2005.
57. ↑ Arsenal named the Premiership's fastest-growing brand. Brand Republic. URL accessed on October 13, 2005.
58. ↑ OFEX Company Profile: Arsenal Holdings plc. OFEX website. URL accessed on December 23, 2005.
59. ↑ Arsenal FC Statement of Accounts & Annual Report 2004/2005. OFEX website. URL accessed on December 23, 2005.
60. ↑ Arsenal fans fear takeover as share price continues to rise. Daily Telegraph. URL accessed on December 23, 2005.
61. ↑ Up until 1992, the top division of English football was the Football League First Division; since then, it has been the FA Premier League.
62. ↑ Article on India's indegeniously-built aircraft carrier.
63. ↑ CNA report
64. ↑ Report: China plans to build carrier, 2006 March 10, Marine Corps Times.
65. ↑ Maclean's 2005 Rankings
66. ↑ The Hebrew uses a word which can be taken to mean simply "side", but the reading "rib" has become entrenched in the Christian traditional reading of the Adam and Eve story
67. ↑ This is a word-play in Hebrew: Adam declares that the newly-created being shall be called "ishshah" because she was taken out of "ish", man. See the Jewish Encyclopedia
68. ↑ Genesis 2 (Revised Standard Version)
69. ↑ Genesis 3 (Revised Standard Version)
70. ↑ Genesis 4 (Revised Standard Version)
71. ↑ Genesis 5 (Revised Standard Version)
72. ↑ For a brief overview see Robin Lane Fox, "The Unauthorized Version", 1991, pp15-27 passim
73. ↑ The Priestly source isolated - the Creation of Man
74. ↑ The Jahwist source isolated - the Creation of Man and the Fall
75. ↑ The book of Genesis by sources
76. ↑ Genesis 5:2
77. ↑ Genesis 1:27
78. ↑ See Dilmun for an online transcription and translation of the myth. See OMIM (Online Medelian Inheritance, maintained by Johns Hopkins University) for an alternative and as yet untested view on the nature of "Adam's rib".
79. ↑ Orthodox beliefs
80. ↑ Romans 5:12
81. ↑ Later theological commentators characterised Adam and Eve's disobedience to God's word as the foundation of sin. Nevertheless, Chapter 3 of Genesis does not use the word "sin", and Genesis 3:24 makes clear that they are expelled "lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever".
82. ↑ For a brief overview see Robin Lane Fox, "The Unauthorized Version", 1991, pp15-27 passim
83. ↑ Original Sin
84. ↑ Tertullian, "De Cultu Feminarum", Book I Chapter I, Modesty in Apparel Becoming to Women in Memory of the Introduction of Sin Through a Woman (in "The Ante-Nicene Fathers")
85. ↑ Manichaean beliefs
86. ↑ On The Transmitters Of Isra'iliyyat
87. ↑ The Catechism states, "The account of the fall in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms a primeval event, a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man." (CCC 390). Pope Pius XII stated in Humani Generis 37: "the faithful cannot embrace that opinion which maintains either that after Adam there existed on this earth true men who did not take their origin through natural generation from him as from the first parents of all, or that Adam represents a certain number of first parents. Now, it is in no way apparent how such an opinion can be reconciled that which the sources of revealed truth and the documents of the teaching authority of the Church proposed with regard to original sin which proceeds from a sin actually committed by an individual Adam in which through generation is passed onto all and is in everyone as his own" [4]
88. ↑ ^a b Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1. URL accessed on 2005-11-05.
89. ↑ ^a b c Biography at ArteHistoria. URL accessed on 2005-11-09.
90. ↑ ^a b Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 2. URL accessed on 2005-11-09.
91. ↑ Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 4.
92. ↑ ^a b c Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5. URL accessed on 2005-11-09.
93. ↑ Playà Maset, Josep. "The Vatican initiates the beatification process for Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí", in La Vanguardia, Barcelona, 12 March 2000. Reproduced at Gaudí and Barcelona Club. Retrieved 9 November 2005.
94. ↑ Two-Stage-to-Orbit 'Blackstar' System Shelved at Groom Lake? William B. Scott, Aviation Week March 5 2006
95. ↑ Patton, p10
96. ↑ 2000 Presidential Determination
97. ↑ 2002 Presidential Determination
98. ↑ 2003 Presidential Determination
99. ↑ "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident", Dwayne A. Day, The Space Review January 9 2006. Retrieved April 2 2006
100. ↑ CIA memo to DCI Colby, hosted by The Space Review. Retrieved April 2 2006
101. ↑ "The Cheshire Airstrip", Tom Mahood, October 1996, retrieved April 2 2006
102. ↑ "Dugway Proving Ground - the new Groom Lake?" Above Top Secret June 23 2004, retrieved April 2 2006
103. ↑ Jim Acho (1997). The "Foolish Club", Gridiron Press. ASIN B0006QUG20. Foreword by Miller Farr.
104. ↑ Charles K. Ross (1999). Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League, New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-7495-4.
105. ↑ "He died in the "first" House of the Temple in Washington, D.C., at eight o'clock in the evening on April 2, 1891, the fourth month of his 81st year. Thus passed from this life the all-time Goliath of Freemasonry." ALBERT PIKE AND FREEMASONRY, March-April 2002 edition, California Freemason On-Line
106. ↑ "Today, some Masons will diminish Pike's importance so as to deflect the charges of anti-Masons. There is no doubt, though, that he was among the most influential Masons of his time." Albert Pike, masonicinfo.com
107. ↑ For example "In presence of this spiritual 'Cobra di capello', this deadly, treacherous, murderous enemy, the most formidable power in the world, the unity of Italian Masonry is of absolute and supreme necessity; and to this paramount and omnipotent necessity all minor considerations ought to yield; dissensions and disunion, in presence of this enemy of the human race are criminal" Albert Pike in the Official Bulletin, September, 1887, 173, quoted as footnote [172] in Masonry (Freemasonry) from the Catholic Encyclopedia
108. ↑ Steve Rose Moore's murderer, Guardian Unlimited, 2 February 2002, accessed 12 March 2006
109. ↑ Brad Stone Alan Moore Interview, Comic Book Resources, 22 October 2001, accessed 7 January 2006
110. ↑ Rich Johnston, Lying in the Gutters, Comic Book Resources, 23 May 2005, accessed 7 January 2006
111. ↑ V for Vendetta press conference transcript, Newsarama, 2005, accessed 7 January 2006
112. ↑ "Alan Moore Asks for an Alan Smithee", 9 November 2005, The Comics Reporter, accessed 7 January 2006
113. ↑ Moore, Alan (Interviewee). (2006-03-09). "The Culture Show [TV-Series]." United Kingdom:BBC.
114. ↑ Approximately to scale; sizes taken from Apple's computer specifications page
115. ↑ Apple To Offer Popular eMac to Consumers, retrieved February 10, 2005
116. ↑ eMac gone for consumers, but available for schools, retrieved November 10, 2005
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126. ↑ Jim Dalrymple, Macworld (March 20, 2005): Apple desktop market share on the rise; will the Mac mini, iPod help?
127. ↑ pegasus3d.com: Analysis of Google's zeitgeist reports
128. ↑ Slashdot (June 2005): Mac Install-Base Shown to Be 16%
129. ↑ http://news.com.com/2100-1040-943519.html
130. ↑ John Gruber, Daring Fireball (June 4, 2004): Broken Windows
131. ↑ (2005). Fundamental Beliefs. URL accessed on 2006-03-07.
132. ↑ Lawrence v. Texas ruling - "Early American sodomy laws were not directed at homosexuals as such, but instead sought to prohibit nonprocreative sexual activity more generally"
133. ↑ Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1885). Section D: Pederasty. (HTML) "Terminal Essay", from his translation of The Arabian Nights. URL accessed on 2006-04-03.
134. ↑ Silverman, B G, et al (January 1997). "Use and Effectiveness of Condoms During Anal Intercourse". Sexually Transmitted Diseases 24 (1): 14.
135. ↑ Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophical Leading Thoughts. London: Rudolf Steiner Press, (1924) 1998.
136. ↑ List of psychotropic substances under international control. (PDF) International Narcotics Control Board. URL accessed on November 19, 2005.
137. ↑ Literally translated as "From the city having been founded."
138. ↑ Anne Strick, Injustice for All (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1977): 21.
139. ↑ British Diaries of Kandahar from 1892 onwards
140. ↑ More on Persecution by Abdur Rehman
141. ↑ Barrows, Susan E., Eberlein, Thomas H. (2005). "Understanding Rotation about a C=C Double Bond". J. Chem. Educ. 82: 1329.
142. ↑ The first game console to use exchangeable plug-in cartridges was the Fairchild Channel F; however, that machine did rather dismally in the market. Thus, the Atari 2600 was the console which made the plug-in concept popular among the game playing public.
143. ↑ The cartridge connector's 24 pins were allocated to one supply voltage line, two ground lines, 8 data lines, and 13 address lines. However, the uppermost address line was used as a so-called chip select for the cartridge's ROM chip, leaving only 12 address lines for the chip's game program. Thus, without special "hardware tricks" built into the cartridge, an Atari 2600 game could occupy a maximum address space of 4K.
144. ↑ The screwless DE-9 controller ports subsequently became the mechanical/electrical de facto standard for game controllers in the 8-bit and early 16-bit era and were used in most subsequent Atari and Commodore consoles and home computers, among many others including the Sega Genesis.
145. ↑ Newberry Library catalog
146. ↑ The alphabet song is sometimes said to come from another of Bradlee's publications, "The Schoolmaster", but the first line of that song is given as "Come, come my children, I must see", in Yale University's library catalog. It is described as "a favorite glee for three voices, as sung at the Salem glee club."
147. ↑ Traditors were those who, under persecution, handed over the Scriptures to pagan authorities or recanted their faith.
148. ↑ Catabaptist is defined as "drowners" or "immersers", but also as "opponents of baptism" (infant baptism).
149. ↑ A "true church" movement is one in which the participants of a movement believe their movement represents the true faith and order of New Testament Christianity. Most only assert this in relation to their church doctrines, polity, and practice (e.g., the ordinances), while a few hold they are the only true Christians. Some examples of Anabaptistic true church movements are the Landmark Baptists and the Church of God in Christ, Mennonite. The Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee), the Stone-Campbell restoration movement, and others represent a variation in which the "true church" apostasized and was restored, in distinction to this idea of apostolic or church succession.
150. ↑ Mennonite World Conference 2003 Mennonite & Brethren in Christ World Membership

References

• A History of Anti-Pedobaptism, From the Rise of Pedobaptism to A. D. 1609, by Albert H. Newman ISBN 1579785360
• Anabaptists and the Sword, by James M. Stayer ISBN 0872910814
• An Introduction to Mennonite History, by Cornelius J. Dyck ISBN 0836136209
• Covenant and Community: the Life and Writing of Pilgram Marpeck, by William Klassen
• German Peasants' War & Anabaptist Community of Goods, by James M. Stayer ISBN 0773508422
• Hutterite Beginnings: Communitarian Experiments During the Reformation, by Werner O. Packull ISBN 0801850487
• Mennonite Encyclopedia, Harold S. Bender, Cornelius J. Dyck, Dennis D. Martin, Henry C. Smith, et al., editors ISBN 0836110188
• Revelation & Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Muntzer, by Michael G. Baylor ISBN 0934223165
• The Anabaptist Story, by William R. Estep; ISBN 0802815944
• The Anabaptist Vision, by Harold S. Bender; ISBN 0836113055
• The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght; ISBN 083611390X
• The Pursuit of the Millennium, by Norman Cohn; ISBN 0195004566
• The Reformers and their Stepchildren, by Leonard Verduin; ISBN 0801092841
• The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster, by Anthony Arthur ISBN 0312205155

External links

• Anabaptism. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Anabaptist Network.com. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. - UK-based network focused on historical Anabaptism and its relevance for contemporary Christianity. Includes a What is Anabaptism? FAQ
• Anabaptist.org. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• AnabaptistChurch.org. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Mennonite Origins and the Mennonites of Europe. Bible Views. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• The Dordrecht Confession of Faith. Bible Views. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• The Story of the Church: The Protestant Reformation: The Anabaptists and Other Radical Reformers. Ritchie Family Page. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• The Anabaptist Story. The Reformed Reader. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Introduction to the Martyr's Mirror. Martyr's Mirror Online. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• The Radical Reformation: Resources. Eldrbarry.net. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• The Schleitheim Confession. Anabaptist Network. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Third Way Cafe. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Menno on the Net. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. - A directory of web pages about church reformer Menno Simons
• Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• Cascadia Publishing House. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. - Publisher of Anabaptist-related resources
• DreamSeeker Magazine. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. - Featuring Anabaptist-related writers and articles
• Holdeman Mennonites. URL accessed on December 15, 2005.
• "Der wedderdoeper eidt" / oath of the Münster Anabaptists